Colonial Gardens: The Beginnings of American Landscape Design

When European settlers first arrived on the shores of North America in the 17th century, they brought with them not only their hopes and dreams but also the gardening traditions of their homelands. These early colonial gardens were born out of necessity and nostalgia, serving as both a means of survival and a connection to the lands they had left behind.

The Practical Roots of Colonial Gardens

In the harsh and unfamiliar environment of the New World, the primary focus of early settlers was survival. The gardens they established were not merely decorative, but vital lifelines that provided food, medicine, and essential materials. These utilitarian spaces were a testament to the settlers’ resilience and adaptability in the face of numerous challenges.

Food Production: The Cornerstone of Colonial Gardens

The most critical function of colonial gardens was food production. In a time before grocery stores and with unreliable supply chains from Europe, growing one’s own food was not a hobby but a necessity.

Vegetable Gardens

Vegetable gardens were the heart of colonial food production. These gardens typically included:

1. Root Vegetables: Carrots, turnips, and parsnips were staples that could be stored through winter.
2. Leafy Greens: Cabbage, lettuce, and spinach provided essential nutrients.
3. Legumes: Peas and beans were crucial sources of protein and could be dried for long-term storage.
4. Squash and Pumpkins: These New World natives quickly became colonial favorites for their versatility and storage capabilities.
5. Onions and Garlic: Valued for both culinary and medicinal purposes.

Colonists often practiced companion planting, a technique learned from Native Americans, where complementary crops were grown together. The famous “Three Sisters” planting of corn, beans, and squash is a prime example of this method.

Orchards

Fruit orchards were another vital component of colonial food gardens:

1. Apple Trees: Apples were particularly prized for their versatility. They could be eaten fresh, stored for winter, made into cider (a safer alternative to often contaminated water), and used as livestock feed.
2. Pear and Plum Trees: These provided fresh fruit and could be preserved for winter use.
3. Cherry and Peach Trees: In areas with suitable climates, these trees offered delicious fruits for fresh eating and preserves.

Orchards required long-term planning and investment, as trees took years to bear fruit. They represented a commitment to the land and a hope for the future.

Medicinal Purposes: The Colonial Pharmacy

In an era when professional medical care was scarce and often unreliable, herb gardens served as the colonists’ pharmacy. These gardens were typically located close to the house for easy access during emergencies. Common medicinal herbs grown included:

1. Chamomile: Used for its calming properties and to aid digestion.
2. Peppermint: Valued for relieving headaches and digestive issues.
3. Yarrow: Applied to wounds to stop bleeding and reduce inflammation.
4. Echinacea: Used to boost the immune system and fight infections.
5. Feverfew: Grown to treat fevers and migraines.
6. Comfrey: Applied topically for wound healing and bone health.
7. Valerian: Used as a sleep aid and to reduce anxiety.

Colonists often combined European herbal knowledge with remedies learned from Native Americans, creating a unique blend of Old and New World medicinal practices.

Fiber and Dye Production: Clothing the Colonies

Beyond food and medicine, colonial gardens played a crucial role in producing materials for clothing and textiles.

Fiber Plants

1. Flax: This versatile plant was grown extensively for its fibers, which were processed into linen. Flax seeds (also known as linseed) were also used for their oil.
2. Hemp: While less common than flax, hemp was also grown for its strong fibers, used in making rope and coarse fabrics.
3. Cotton: In southern colonies with suitable climates, cotton became an increasingly important crop for fiber production.

Dye Plants

Colonists grew various plants to produce dyes for their textiles:

1. Indigo: Produced a highly prized blue dye and became a significant cash crop in southern colonies.
2. Madder: The roots of this plant were used to create red dyes.
3. Weld: This plant produced yellow dyes.
4. Woad: Another source of blue dye, used before indigo became widely available.

Growing these plants allowed colonists to produce a range of colors for their textiles, reducing reliance on expensive imported dyes.

Garden Layout and Protection

The layout of these utilitarian gardens was carefully planned for efficiency and protection:

1. Proximity to Home: Gardens were typically located close to the house for easy access and monitoring.
2. Fencing: Sturdy fences were essential to protect crops from wildlife and free-ranging livestock. These fences were often made from readily available materials like wood or stone.
3. Hedges: In some cases, living hedges of thorny plants like hawthorn were used as natural fencing.
4. Raised Beds: Many vegetables were grown in raised beds, which improved drainage and made tending the plants easier.
5. Crop Rotation: Colonists practiced crop rotation to maintain soil fertility, a technique that was both traditional European practice and reinforced by Native American agricultural methods.

The boundary created by fences or hedges served a dual purpose: it protected valuable crops and created a clear delineation between the cultivated, “civilized” space of the garden and the perceived wilderness beyond.

Adapting to New World Conditions

While colonists brought many familiar plants from Europe, they also had to adapt to New World conditions:

1. Climate Challenges: Colonists had to adjust their gardening practices to unfamiliar climates, from the harsh winters of New England to the long, hot summers of the South.
2. New World Plants: Native crops like corn, squash, and beans were incorporated into colonial gardens, often with guidance from Native Americans.
3. Pest Management: Colonists had to develop strategies to deal with unfamiliar pests and diseases that threatened their crops.

These practical colonial gardens were more than just sources of food and materials; they were a bridge between the Old World and the New, a means of survival, and the foundation upon which colonial society was built. They represent the ingenuity, adaptability, and perseverance of the early settlers in carving out a life in the challenging environment of colonial America.

The Emergence of Ornamental Gardens

As colonies became more established and prosperous, particularly in areas like Virginia and New England, the luxury of ornamental gardening began to take root. Wealthy colonists, eager to recreate the refined lifestyles they had known in Europe, started incorporating decorative elements into their garden designs. This shift marked the beginning of American landscape design as an art form.

Characteristics of Colonial Ornamental Gardens:

Formal Layouts with Geometric Patterns

• Gardens were often designed in symmetrical patterns, reflecting the orderly worldview of the colonists.
  • This symmetry was typically achieved through the use of straight lines and right angles.
  • The overall layout often formed a square or rectangle, divided into smaller geometric shapes.
• Paths and beds were laid out in grids or other geometric shapes, creating a sense of structure and control over nature.
  • Paths were usually straight and intersected at right angles, forming a grid pattern.
  • Planting beds were often square or rectangular, sometimes with circular elements at intersections or as focal points.
  • This geometric layout was seen as a way to impose order on the wilderness of the New World.

Symmetrical Designs with Central Axes

• A central walkway often served as the main axis of the garden, with elements mirrored on either side.
  • This main axis typically ran from the house to the far end of the garden, creating a strong visual line.
  • Secondary paths often branched off perpendicular to this main axis, creating a balanced, mirror-image design.
• This symmetry was seen as a reflection of divine order and human reason.
  • It represented the Enlightenment ideals of logic and rationality that were prevalent at the time.

The symmetrical design also served to emphasize important features or focal points in the garden.

Enclosed Spaces

• Gardens were typically surrounded by fences, hedges, or walls.
  • Wooden picket fences were common in less formal gardens.
  • More elaborate gardens might have brick or stone walls.
  • Hedges, often of boxwood or privet, were used to create “green walls” within the garden.
• This enclosure served practical purposes (protection from animals) and symbolic ones (creating a “paradise” separate from the wilderness).
  • Practically, it kept out wildlife and livestock that might damage the plants.
  • Symbolically, it created a controlled, cultivated space distinct from the surrounding wilderness.
  • The enclosed garden was often seen as a metaphor for Eden, a perfect, protected space.

Integration of Practical and Ornamental Elements

• Even in more decorative gardens, useful plants were often incorporated alongside purely ornamental ones.
  • Herb gardens were often a prominent feature, providing both beauty and utility.
  • Vegetable plots might be incorporated into the overall design, with neat rows adding to the geometric pattern.
• Fruit trees might be espaliered along walls, combining beauty with productivity.
  • This technique of training trees to grow flat against a wall or fence was both space-saving and decorative.
  • Common espaliered fruits included apples, pears, and peaches.
• Ornamental plants were often chosen for their practical uses as well as their beauty.
  • For example, roses were prized for their appearance but also used to make rose water and potpourri.

Use of Native and European Plants

• Colonists experimented with native plants, often sending specimens back to Europe.
  • This led to a botanical exchange between the Old and New Worlds.
  • Native plants like sunflowers, black-eyed Susans, and cardinal flowers were incorporated into garden designs.
• European plants were imported and cultivated, sometimes with great difficulty, as a link to the gardeners’ heritage.
  • Familiar plants from home provided comfort and a sense of continuity for the colonists.
  • Popular European imports included tulips, daffodils, and various herbs.
• The mix of native and European plants created a unique American garden aesthetic.
  • This blend reflected the colonists’ dual identity as both Europeans and inhabitants of the New World.

Knot Gardens and Parterres

• These intricate designs, popular in Europe, were recreated in colonial gardens.
• Knot gardens featured intertwining patterns of low-growing herbs or hedges.
  • These were often small, intricate gardens within the larger garden design.
  • Common plants used in knot gardens included lavender, rosemary, and germander.
  • The patterns were often geometric or based on heraldic designs.
• Parterres were formal gardens with intricate patterns created by plant beds and paths.
  • These were typically larger than knot gardens and often formed the centerpiece of the garden.
  • Parterres might include elements like topiary, small trees, or statuary.
  • The spaces between the plant beds were often filled with colored gravel or sand to enhance the pattern.

These characteristics combined to create gardens that were orderly, productive, and aesthetically pleasing, reflecting the values and aspirations of colonial society. The gardens served as a visible demonstration of the colonists’ ability to tame the wilderness and create a civilized space in the New World, while also maintaining connections to their European heritage.

Influences on Colonial Garden Design

Colonial gardens in America were a fascinating blend of Old World traditions and New World adaptations. The settlers brought with them not only plants and seeds but also deeply ingrained ideas about garden design and aesthetics. These European influences were then shaped by the realities of the American landscape, climate, and available resources, resulting in a unique colonial garden style.

English Influence

The English influence on colonial gardens was perhaps the most pervasive, given that many of the early settlers came from England.

Cottage Gardens

The concept of the cottage garden was particularly influential in colonial America:

• Informal Layout: Unlike formal gardens, cottage gardens had a more relaxed, seemingly haphazard arrangement.
• Mixed Plantings: Vegetables, herbs, and flowers were intermingled, creating a diverse and colorful landscape.
• Practical Beauty: These gardens combined aesthetics with utility, reflecting the colonial need for both beauty and practicality.
• Perennial Favorites: English cottage garden staples like hollyhocks, foxgloves, and roses were popular choices.
• Climbing Plants: Vines and climbing roses were often used to soften the appearance of buildings and fences.

Colonial adaptations of cottage gardens often included native American plants, creating a unique blend of familiar and new flora.

The “Pleasance”

The English concept of the “pleasance” found fertile ground in colonial America:

• Enclosed Space: Typically surrounded by high walls or dense hedges, creating a sense of privacy and seclusion.
• Contemplative Purpose: Designed as a retreat for quiet reflection and relaxation.
• Sensory Experience: Filled with fragrant herbs and colorful flowers to engage all the senses.
• Water Features: Often included small fountains or ponds for their soothing qualities.
• Seating Areas: Benches or small pavilions provided places for rest and contemplation.

In the colonial context, the pleasance often served as a respite from the challenges of frontier life, offering a taste of refinement and tranquility.

French Influence

French garden design, with its emphasis on formality and grandeur, had a significant impact on colonial gardens, especially those of wealthy landowners.

Formal Designs

French-inspired formal gardens were characterized by:

• Symmetry: Gardens were often designed with perfect bilateral symmetry.
• Geometric Patterns: Beds and pathways were laid out in precise geometric shapes.
• Topiary: The art of shaping shrubs and trees into ornamental shapes was imported from French traditions.
• Central Axis: A main pathway often ran through the center of the garden, emphasizing perspective.
• Statuary and Ornaments: Decorative elements like statues, urns, and fountains were used as focal points.

Elaborate Parterres

Parterres, intricate ornamental flower gardens, were a hallmark of French-inspired design:

• Intricate Patterns: Beds were laid out in complex designs, often resembling embroidery.
• Low Plantings: Plants in parterres were kept low to maintain the visibility of the overall design.
• Colored Gravel: Spaces between plantings were often filled with colored gravel or sand to enhance the pattern.
• Boxwood Edging: Low boxwood hedges were commonly used to outline the parterre design.
• Integration with Architecture: Parterres were often designed to be viewed from above, complementing the architecture of the house.

The “Long View”

The French concept of the “long view” or vista had a lasting impact on colonial landscape design:

• Axial Design: Gardens were often designed along a central axis, creating a strong sense of perspective.
• Framed Views: Trees or hedges were used to frame specific views of the landscape or architectural features.
• Terracing: On sloped sites, terracing was used to create level areas and enhance the sense of perspective.
• Allées: Tree-lined walkways extended the garden into the surrounding landscape.
• Integration with Nature: The long view concept helped to blend the formal garden with the natural landscape beyond.

Dutch Influence

Dutch gardening traditions had a significant impact in certain colonial regions, particularly in areas like New Amsterdam (later New York).

Tulips and Other Bulbs

The Dutch passion for tulips and other bulbs found its way to colonial gardens:

• Spring Displays: Tulips, daffodils, and hyacinths were planted for vibrant spring color.
• Bulb Collections: Some colonists became avid collectors of rare and unusual bulbs.
• Formal Planting Patterns: Bulbs were often planted in geometric patterns or long, straight rows.
• Cut Flower Gardens: Bulb flowers were popular for indoor arrangements.
• Naturalizing: In some cases, bulbs were allowed to naturalize in meadows or woodlands.

Formal Boxwood Hedges

The Dutch use of boxwood hedges became a prominent feature in colonial gardens:

See also

Design

Victorian Era Landscapes: A Tapestry of Nature and Artifice

• Garden Structure: Boxwood was used to create the “bones” of the garden, defining spaces and pathways.
• Knot Gardens: Intricate patterns were created using low boxwood hedges.
• Topiary: Boxwood was shaped into ornamental forms, from simple globes to more complex shapes.
• Winter Interest: The evergreen nature of boxwood provided structure to the garden year-round.
• Formal Parterres: Boxwood was often used to outline the intricate designs of parterres.

Additional Dutch Influences

• Canal Gardens: In areas with suitable terrain, Dutch-inspired canal gardens were sometimes created.
• Utilitarian Beauty: The Dutch approach of combining ornamental and productive plants in the same space resonated with colonial practicality.
• Emphasis on Cleanliness: The Dutch value of neatness and order in gardens influenced colonial maintenance practices.

These European influences were not adopted wholesale but were adapted to suit the unique conditions of colonial America. Factors such as climate, available materials, and the need for self-sufficiency all played a role in shaping how these Old World traditions were interpreted in the New World. The result was a distinctly American garden style that drew inspiration from European roots while responding to the realities of life in the colonies.

Regional Variations in Colonial Gardens

The diverse climates and cultures of the American colonies led to regional variations in garden design:

New England:

• Gardens tended to be more practical due to the harsh climate.
• Formal elements were often restrained, reflecting Puritan values.

Mid-Atlantic:

• A mix of English, Dutch, and German influences created diverse garden styles.
• Philadelphia became a center for botanical exploration and garden design.

Southern Colonies:

• The milder climate allowed for more elaborate and extensive gardens.
• Large plantation gardens emerged, often designed to impress visitors and demonstrate wealth.

The Symbolic Importance of Colonial Gardens

Beyond their practical and aesthetic functions, colonial gardens held significant symbolic value:

Taming the Wilderness:

• Gardens represented the colonists’ efforts to bring order to the perceived chaos of the New World.
• The contrast between cultivated gardens and the surrounding wilderness was a point of pride.

Social Status:

• Elaborate gardens were a sign of wealth and refinement.
• The ability to grow non-native plants was particularly prestigious.

Cultural Identity:

• Gardens helped maintain a connection to European roots.
• They also began to reflect a developing American identity as native plants were incorporated.

Scientific Interest:

• Colonial gardens often served as sites for botanical experimentation.
• Plant specimens were exchanged between the colonies and Europe, contributing to scientific knowledge.

Legacy of Colonial Gardens

Bottom Line

Colonial gardens, with their blend of Old World traditions and New World adaptations, laid the foundation for the rich tapestry of American landscape design that would unfold in the centuries to come. They reflect not only the practical needs and aesthetic preferences of early settlers but also their worldview and aspirations.